Foods of Ancient Athens

Below is some information about foods in ancient Athens (some of it is just general to all of Greece, but I tried to focus on Athens specifically when I could).  Recipes and sources are at the end.

Before I get into the foods themselves, I'd like to talk about the hospitality culture in Ancient Greece.  The idea was called Xenia, and was summarized by these two principals.

1. The respect from hosts to guests. Hosts must be hospitable to guests and provide them with a bath, food, drink, gifts, and safe escort to their next destination. It is considered rude to ask guests questions, or even to ask who they are, before they have finished the meal provided to them. 

2. The respect from guests to hosts. Guests must be courteous to their hosts and not be a threat or burden. Guests are expected to provide stories and news from the outside world. Most importantly, guests are expected to reciprocate if their hosts ever call upon them in their homes.

 (Xenia (Greece), Wikipedia, Accessed Sept 10, 2024...and the source of this passage was cited as...Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.) 

While they had all of the food listed below (save a few of the more modern ingredients in some of the recipes), grapes, olives, and grains are what is know as "The Mediterranean Triad" as it makes the backbone of the diet of Ancient Greece and Rome.  So, you'll want to highlight these foods in the samples and dishes you share when exploring Ancient greek food with kids.

BREAD and GRAINS
Wheat didn't grow well in Greece, but Barley did (the Romans even called the Greeks "Barley Eaters."). But Athens imported wheat from other countries, and became known for its white wheat bread.    Its commercial bakeries ran all night.   The poor still ate millet and emmer bread (and whole grain barley porridge and maza) which was looked down on by the upper class.  Socrates called whole grain bread "pig food."   Spelt was also available in Greece, and in greek myth was a gift from the Demeter, the goddess of agriculture and the harvest.   Many of these grains were also used in various porridges, drinks, and in other recipes.  Like meats below, small samples of breads and grains were often sacrificed to the gods, especially to Demeter and her daughter Persephone.

In the summer, the drought season in Greece, farmers would burry grain in underground granaries and  large vases called pithos, and unearthed in the fall when planting begun.  

(Note, the imported wheat was Triticum aestivum...commonly known as "Bread Wheat" and used all over the world today.)

MEAT
In Athens, you couldn't eat most domesticated meat (cows, pigs, sheep, goats) unless the animal was sacrificed to the gods.     During festivals cows and pigs were sacrificed and the meat was cooked and handed out to the public.   For banquets the wealthy would also sacrifice a large animal.   A piglet was attainable for the middle class (it cost about 3 days wage of a public servant).  

Wild caught foods such as fish, rabbit, wild foul like duck and pheasant and smaller domestic animals like geese, quails, chicken, however didn't have to be sacrificed to the Gods before they were eaten.

Fish was the most common meat.  Tuna, sea bass, grey and red mullet, grouper, and eel were esteemed and expensive.  Carp, catfish and pike were common, and parrotfish was one of the cheaper fish.  Small fish like anchovies were cheep but not as desirable.   Dried fish of various sorts were common. (And it was a meat Christians could eat without worrying whether it had been sacrificed).  They also had shellfish like oysters and scallops and ate things like squid and octopus as well.

Meat was prepared in various ways.   Sausage (usually from pigs)  was common for both rich and poor.  Ground meat such as meatballs were also used.  Larger pieces of meat were often roasted, though whole legs, or hams, were rubbed with salt and smoked by hanging high over a fire.   Meat was also pickled with herbs in wind vinegar.  (Dawson pg 10)







DAIRY
Eggs from geese, chickens and quail
   (cooked soft or hard boiled, and used as ingredients)
Cheeses 
- feta cheese (may have even been mentioned in Homer's Odyssey)
- something like cottage cheese
- yogurt (also used as skincare)
- various other cheeses

Milk was not usually not drunk except as a medicine, but it was made into cheese.  Butter was considered "barbaric."

Even in the cities, most households kept hens, so they would have fresh eggs to eat.  (Dawson pg 19)



VEGETABLES AND LEGUMES
(vegetables were eaten fresh and sometimes dried)

A greek myth tells that Athena and Poseiden, god of the sea, each wanted to make the region of Attica their own, and so they had a competition as to who could provide the best gift.  Athena's gift of the Olive tree was considered the better gift, and she became the city's patron goddess.

Olive oil was not only important to the Greeks for food, but also for fuel in oil lamps, and bathing and skincare.  It was also used for anointing during rituals and special occasions.

Artichokes
Asparagus*
Olives*
Lettuce
Cabbage
Cucumber
Celery
Onions
Leeks
Garden Peas
Lentils (lentil soup was a commoners typical dish)
Black Beans
Broad Beans
Fava Beans
Chickpeas
Lupin Bean

*Hippocrates used this as a diuretic
*Olives were eaten as a fruit only after being conserved in brine or vinegar (and the process of brining took months)

FRUITS
Grapes (and raisens)
Dates
Figs
Pomegranate
Plum
Apples
Pears
Quince
Muskmelon/Cantaloupe (Cucumis melo, introduced in 3rd Century BC)
Watermelon (yellow rind by the 1st century, not yet red until early middle ages)

NUTS/SEEDS
Beechnuts
Chestnuts
Walnuts
Almonds
Sesame
Flax

(Acorns were often consumed by the poor.  WARNING:  Only edible if processed so that tannin is removed)



SPICES
I've noted common uses for spices, and which spices I know were imported (but others listed might be as well).   Imported spices would be more expensive than things that grew in Greece.  Some longer notes are also included below where you see asterics *).

Anise
Cardamom***
Caraway Seed
Cassia (imported)
Celery Seed
Cinnamon (imported)****
Coriander (condiment in food and wine)
Cumin
Dill
Fennel (imported, used in vinegar sauces)
Garlic (widely used)
Ginger (imported)**
Lavender
Marjoram
Mint (flavoring for meat sauces)**
Mustard
Oregano**
Parsley
Pepper, black and white (imported)****
Poppy Seeds (imported, used on breads)
Rue
Saffron
Salt
Thyme**

The works of Hippocrates (459–370 BC) contain 300 medicinal plants classified by physiological action: Wormwood and common centaury (Centaurium umbellatum Gilib) were applied against fever; garlic against intestine parasites; opium, henbane, deadly nightshade, and mandrake were used as narcotics; fragrant hellebore and haselwort as emetics; sea onion, celery, parsley, asparagus, and garlic as diuretics; oak and pomegranate as adstringents.[10,11]
****Ancient Greeks wore crowns of parsley and marjoram to prevent drunkenness while feasting.


*Many herbs, including those used for cooking, were also considered to have medicinal uses.   

Garlic - intestinal parasites, diuretic (Hippocrates)
Celery - diuretic (Hippocrates)
Marjorum -  crowns of parsley and marjoram were warn at feasts to prevent drunkenness
Parsley - diuretic (Hippocrates), crowns of parsley and marjoram were warn at feasts to prevent drunkenness




**Residue of DNA of these were discovered in amphora in sunken ancient Greek trading ships.   I don't know if the items were being imported or exported.  But still, if they were being traded they probably would have been available in Athens, a major trade destination.


***The ancient Romans and Greeks used Cardamon in their perfumes.


****Peppercorn and cinnamon was imported from India.   Pepper was common enough that ordinary people could use it, at least in small quantities (though Pliny complained about the price, and noted that white pepper cost twice as much as black). 







DRINKS
Wine & Grape Juice
Water (usually with a little wine mixed in, to kill germs)
Barley Tea


OILS/SAUCES/OTHER
Vinegar
Olive Oil
Honey (also used in skincare)




RECIPES

Chrysocolla (Flaxseed candy)

Honey Fritters

Pasteli (Sesame Honey Candy)

Honey Cheesecake
This has a lot of extra info about Ancient Greek deserts as well.

Petimizi/grape molasses
You can also sometimes find this in Greek or mediteranian markets.  Several recipes below use this this.  Moustokoulora, Mustalervria, and the Grilled Quail.  You could also try it on the Tagenites (greek pancakes).

Moustokouloura (Grape molasses cookies)
This recipe is time consuming but supposedly easy to make (less time consuming if you have a really good Greek market where you can buy the petimizi/grape molasses in stead of making it yourself).    The recipe uses alcohol but it bakes out (and I've read you can use grape juice in stead).   It does use one spice they definitely wouldn't have used (Allspice), but I've found other versions of this recipe without it, so you could omit that for a more authentic ancient Greek version.   Cloves (which which were in every Moustokouloura recipe I found)   reached the Roman world by the 1st Century AD, so they could have been a new delicacy.   Find more history of these here.

Grape Must Pudding - Mustalevria

Tagenites/Attanitai  (Pancakes With Honey)
Usually a breakfast food, just like today.   Site has history.

3 Easy Ancient Greek Recipes - Pancakes, Lentil Soup, and Nut Cake
 
Maza (Barley Bread Balls)
Served with olives, cheese, and eggs.
(Dawson pg 6)

Ptisane (Barley Tea with Mint)

Kodratoi (Sectioned Bread Loaves)

Koulouria/Kollyra (Bagel Shaped Bread Rolls With Sesame)
A bread that was around since ancient times, but is still popular in modern day Greece.  The traditional greek Easter bread known as cuddura is believed to be etymologically linked to kollyra.

Greek Mushroom Bread 
It's named after shape...and contains no mushrooms.

Greek Style Country Bread 

Ancient Greek Trieme (Ship) Shaped Bread (CONTENT WARNING)
The article this recipe is in talks about some innuendo related to how the Greeks wrote about this particular loaf of bread.  But while I don't suggest having your kids read along with you on this, I highly doubt that kids will see anything in the bread itself except a Grecian ship, especially if you show it with a picture or model of one.  So, I wanted to share this in spite of the content warning.  You can always skip down to the end for the recipe, and skip the description of the dicey history.

Barley Porridge
Barley porridge was a common meal in greece.  This recipe mentions vikings, not the Greeks, but porridge was pretty similar wherever it was made.    For a more authentic Greek porridge, use honey, not sugar.

Ancient Greek Lentil Soup


9 Greek and Roman Recipes
Greek recipes included:

• Athenian Cabbage
• Garlic Cheese
• Olive Relish
• Honey Glazed Prawns
  

Skewered Meat
- Meat was often cooked on skewers, over a fire, like shish kabobs.  Might be glazed with Petimizi/grape molasses or served with Garum.

Grilled Quail (or chicken) Glazed with Grape Syrup (Petimizi)
Could be used on chicken but cooking times might need to be changed.  I don't know for certain this was an ancient recipe, but I do know that it includes ancient ingredients including Petimizi/grape molasses (which can sometimes be found in Greek markets).

Ancient Greek Fish Recipe
Scroll to the bottom for the recipe.

Home-made Garum (Roman Fish Sauce)
While it was a "roman sauce" it was actually derived from an earlier Greek sauce, and was popular in Greece more than Rome.  Garum was "used as condiments for literally everything: from meat and fish to vegetables, salads, desserts, bread, and wine dipping."    This is a modern version that feasible to make at home...if you're brave enough to try it. 

Cheesy Mackerel with Roasted Barley Flour Dough

SOURCES
I've cited books in the text as I wanted to share page numbers and this was info added later.   I am sorry I didn't directly cite the online sources in the text above. I can't remember now which info came from which source below, unfortunately.  In addition to this list there are some other sources linked directly in the text above.

Food In Ancient Greece
What Did the Ancient Greeks Eat
Ancient Meals and Eating Habits Part I: Greeks
Ancient Greek Food
Ancient Greek Cuisine (Wikipedia)
The History of Greek Bread 
History of Mushrooms
Lemon Trees in Greece
Chickens and Religion
Spices the Flavored Greek Cooking
Foods and Feasts in Ancient Greece by Imogen Dawson, Published 1995, Zoe Books, England (affiliate link to amazon)
History of Spices:  McCormic Spice Institute
Historical Review of Medicinal Plant Usage
Muskmellons Originated in Persia
The History of Cucumbers
The History of Artichokes
The History of the Watermelon
History of Cucumbers
Tavola Mediterranea - Last checked posts for greek recipes Sept 2024
Silk Road Gourmet - Last checked posts for greek recipes Sept 2024

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Shared on Little's Learning Link-up

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Mesopotamian Foods

Below list of foods found in ancient Mesopotamia.     Most of my information for this list comes from The Food Timeline's section on Mesopotamia and The Silk Road Gourmet, a blog about ancient and historical foods.   Some of these would be great for making and eating with kids, others are not as kid friendly...but I included all I found just to be thorough.

For those doing the Group VBS covering the story of the Daniel in Babylon, I've tried to include any details that might be relevant.  I believe all of these were all foods eaten during the Babylonian period (assuming the older recipes would still be around later).


MEALS & RECIPES

Everyday meals probably consisted of barley paste or barleycake, accompanied by onions or a handful of beans and washed down with barley ale, but the fish that swarmed in the rivers of Mesopotamia were a not-too-rare luxury.

- Food in History, Reay Tannahill 

I tried to make note of ones which were easier, or had more accessible ingredients...but included more complex dishes as well.




MEAT DISHES

Lamb with Barley and Mint (and other recipes)
This recipe (found  the end of the page...just scroll down) is the easiest of the meat recipes I've found.   Easy to find ingredients too.  Mint and lamb are both strong flavors many kids aren't used to, but some kids might still try this.   There are several other recipes also listed further up but they are straight out of ancient tablets without having been translated for the modern stovetop, so would take some experimenting. 

"Pigeon" (Cornish Hens) with Herbs
Moderately hard dish, but one I think kids might like, if they like un-breaded chicken (in fact, you could probably substitute chicken).   The ingredients don't seem hard to find, except asafetida which you could substitute with garlic and onion powder (more than the amount of asafetida called for, but I'm not sure how much more--asafetida is supposed to taste pretty potent).

Kofta
This is a Persian dish, so not one of the earliest Mesopotamian dishes (probably wasn't around in ancient Sumer or Ur)...but it may have been introduced when Cyrus the Great took over Babylon, and possibly could have been some of the fare on Darius' table (though it may have been introduced later).  The most likely candidate for the original meatball, kofta is a dish of minced or ground beef, chicken, pork, or lamb, mixed with rice, bulgur, or mashed lentils. Now typically fashioned into cigar-sized cylinders, kofta seems to have originated with the Persians, who passed it to the Arabs.

Lamb with Licorice and Juniper Berries
Neither lamb nor licorice are universally liked by children--both have rather strong tastes.  However, this seems like it's a little easier than some of the other meat dishes (less steps), although there's a few ingredients that might be tricky to find (especially juniper berries).  If you happen to have a Juniper bush or tree in your yard, please read this first before using any berries off it.   Some types of juniper "berries" (actually, small fleshy cones) are less edible than others, and none are good in large quantities (though used as a spice in small quantities others are perfectly safe).  Again, asafetida can probably be  substituted with garlic and onion powder (more than the amount of asafetida called for, but I'm not sure how much more--asafetida is supposed to taste pretty potent).    Oranges, limes or lemons can substitute for citrus.

Lamb with Licorice and Juniper Berries II
This one seems like it would take longer and be more complex than the similar recipe above, but has less unusual ingredients (save for the juniper berries).

Licorice Pork Tenderloin
Moderately hard dish.  Licorice is a strong taste, so many kids won't like this.   It contains some hard to find ingredients, but most of them can be substituted with commoner items  (they say asafetida tastes like garlic and onion, for instance)

Wildfowl Pie
This is a very complex recipe most kids probably wouldn't even try after all that work.   Has a few harder to find ingredients, mostly spices, which possibly could be left out or substituted. Cinnamon was an imported spice, so this would have be food for the well-off, not for the commoner.

Masgouf (Marinated Fish)
There is evidence that Masgouf, often considered the national dish of Iraq, was being cooked as early as 2700 BC in Mesopotamia.  It was a dish that would have been eaten by common workers, not just the upper class.  While today it's generally cooked with tomatoes (something they wouldn't have had), I found this recipe that does not include that.  Most of the ingredients are things they would have had.  They would not have had paprika, and they probably did not yet have black pepper (though pepper, which originates from India, had reached as far as Egypt by the time of Ramases II, who's mummy was found to have pepper stuffed in his nose).   

Meat Broth 

SOUPS AND STEWS

Babylonian Beef Stew

Lamb and Carob Stew
Sounds yummy for soup lovers...but more steps than most soups/stews (and considerable time to make, which is pretty normal for soups).  Carob powder will be the hardest ingredient to find--the rest are not too unusual.


OTHER DISHES

Sasqu (Porridge with Dates) 
Scroll down to find this recipe.   Fairly simple to make, though date syrup, which can be omitted from the recipe, may be hard to find.    I think some kids would try this. 

Mersu with Cheese
Pretty easy recipe, similar to the cream cheese filled dates I listed in the deserts below, but more savory/spicy, less sweet (though the dates will provide some sweetness).   I haven't tried these so I'm not sure if kids would like them, but I do think kids would like the sweeter version, so it might be fun to have this too for contrast.   Labnah tastes almost identical to store bought cream cheese and so cream cheese can be substituted (though labnah is fun and not too hard to make).

Mashed Turnips and Herbs
Doesn't sound hard if you have a food processor, and the ingredients are easy to find, but I'm not sure how many kids would actually try this.   But on the other hand, this may well have one of the types of "vegetables" that Daniel would have been served, so it might be worth having just for that.

Roaster Barley and Herb Pilaf
Lots of steps to this, but I think at the end you'ld have something many kids would try and enjoy.   It contains a few strange ingredients, some of which can be substituted or omitted.   You could use garlic and onion powder for asafetida (more of it, but I'm not sure how much more, as asafetida is supposed to taste pretty potent).  "Blood" can be omitted, but it's inclusion in the recipe on a Babylonian tablet shows how hard it would have been for Jews like Daniel to keep the dietary restrictions of the Law while in Babylon, since even food that were primarily made of things that were permitted might be seasoned with things that weren't, like "blood." (Genesis 9:4, Leviticus 7:26).  


BREADS

Mesopotamian Wheat Bread
- Easy recipe kids would enjoy eating and making, with common ingredients.  To make this more accurate though, you'd need to use something less common (emmer wheat or spelt flour would be closest to what they had, or at least a whole wheat flour of some sort). 

Leavened Mesopotamian Bread - FROM SCRATCH
So, this isn't so much a recipe as a description of a trial of making leavened bread like they would have in Mesopotamia.   Someone familiar with making bread might be able to use this to make their own, but it would be daunting for a novice.  Still, if you are making an easier recipe using more modern ingredients, it might be a good idea to read this to get acquainted with the extra steps ancient Babylonians would have had to go through.


DESERTS

Cream Cheese Filled Dates
This is a simple recipe from a modern site, but it goes back to antiquity.   You could use pistachio nuts in stead of almonds for a more "Babylonian" feel (or no nuts, which many kids would prefer).     I can't speak for all kids, but I loved this as a kid (though the recipe we made at home involved rolling the cream cheese dates in sugar, in stead of adding honey to the cream cheese--but honey is more authentic). 

Mersu Sweet Balls
These look delicious and not too difficult.

Mersu (2nd recipe)

Dried Apricot Mersu

3 Date Deserts
Two of these seem pretty easy, and all of them sound delicious.  Ingredients are either easy to find or optional. 

Cheese Mersu
These date deserts are a little more authentic than the one above, but really, cream cheese is a fine substitute for labnah, though labnah is super fun.

Palace Cake
Scroll down to find this recipe.  Moderate difficulty.  Many kids would try and enjoy this.

Dried Fruit Compote
Scroll down to find this recipe. Doesn't sound too hard, but I think most kids would enjoy the dried fruit more than the compote made from them, so it might not be worth the trouble.

Cuneiform Gingerbread Tablets
Not authentic, at all, but you know what, these are just too fun not to include. 

CHEESE

Labneh
Labneh with Olive Oil
Labneh is a middle eastern cream cheese that may be close to what ancient Mesopotamians had.   It's extremely simple and easy to make...just takes a lot of time to drain.   Apart from being a little softer, it does taste very similar to store bought cream cheese though, so making it is more for the experience than the taste.


TOPPINGS/INGREDIENTS

Rose Water
This site shows how to make your own rose water several ways.   If you are using roses from your own garden, please make sure that they are organic roses only (no dangerous pesticides, including fertilizer that contains pesticides).  Rose water can also be found in some health stores.

Rose Water Syrup
So, I've noticed rose water in another Mesopotamian recipe, so I imagine the syrup might be just as old, and it sound really interesting.   I'm not sure what it would have gone on.   



MORE STRAIGHT FROM THE CUNEIFORM
Other than being translated to English, these recipes are just as the ancient Mesopotamian wrote them.   In other words, it may take some experimenting to figure out cooking times and other things that were left out....but if you enjoy that sort of thing, these links will give you something to play with:

Ancient Mesopotamia Cook-off Challenge
Some of these others have already attempted, and you will find those recipes above.

An Assyrian Banquet
Some of these also have been attempted and are listed above.

 Warriors swimming on inflated skins among fish.
"Over fifty different types [of fish] are mentioned in texts dating before 2300 BC,  although the number of types had diminished in Babylonian times"
--Food in History, Reay Tannahill

INGREDIENTS THEY USED
All of these were found on The Food Timeline's section on Mesopotamia unless specifically noted or linked to another site.


MEATS

Generally, meats were either dried, smoked, or salted for safekeeping, or they were cooked by roasting, boiling, broiling, or barbecuing.

- Handbook of Life in Ancient Mesopotamia, Stephen Bertman

Various fish (over 50 kinds)
Lamb (meat of a young sheep)
Mutton (meat of an adult sheep)
Pork
Beef and Veal
 -  Cattle were not usually slaughtered until the end of their working lives, so the meat would be more tough and stringy.
Ducks
Pigeons
Geese
Ducks
Deer
Gazelle

Fried-fish vendors...did a thriving trade in the narrow, winding streets of Ur. Onions, cucumbers, freshly grilled goat, mutton and pork (not yet taboo in the Near East) were to be had from other food stalls.

- Food in History, Reay Tannahill

DAIRY
Milk (from goats, cows, and sheep)
Cheese
Butter
Yogurt
Eggs (goose and duck)


GRAINS
Barley
 - Barley paste, barley cake, bread, grain soup
Emmer Wheat
 - Cakes, Bread
Millet



VEGETABLES/FUNGI
Legume Soups were a common dish
Chick peas
Lentils
Bean
Peas
Carob/Carob Seeds*
Onions
Garlic
Leek
Cucumber
Muskmelon (similar to cucumber)
Cress/Cress Seed
Mustard
Lettuce
Cabbage
Carrots
Radishes
Beets
Turnips
Truffles
Wild Tulip Bulbs -  Andahsu - (or possibly wild crocus or lily bulb)
    - NOT ALL TULIP BULBS ARE EDIBLE

*These were listed on The Silk Road Gourmet article Some Mesopotamian Ingredients Revealed


FRUITS & BERRIES
Fruits were often preserved in honey, and any fruit that could be dried was also dried to preserve it, as well as eaten fresh.
Dates
  - Most important fruit crop in Mesopotamia
Apple
Fig
Apricots
Peaches***
Cherries
Melons
Mulberries
Pears
Plumbs
Pomegranate
Quince
Citron** (can substitute orange, lime or lemon in recipes)
Juniper Berries*
Grape
 - Raisins
 - One source says that grapes were rarely used.

*These were listed on The Silk Road Gourmet article Some Mesopotamian Ingredients Revealed
**Mentioned in pork recipe on ancient mesopotamian tablet
***From DK Eyewitness Books:  Mesopotamia

SEEDS AND NUTS
Sesame Seeds
Pistacios
Walnuts



SPICES/SWEETENERS

King Merodach-Baladan II (721-710 BC) of Babylonia grew 64 different species of plants in his royal garden. He kept records on how to cultivate many spices and herbs such as cardamom, coriander, garlic, thyme, saffron, and turmeric. The religion of Babylonia involved an ancient medical god of the moon, who controlled medicinal plants. Potent parts of herbs were not allowed sun exposure and were harvested by moonlight.

- History of Spices:  McCormic Spice Institute

Asafetida**
Cardamon****
Coriander
Cress
Cilantro***
Cumin
Dill***
Fennel
Fenugreek
Garlic****
Leek
Licorice**
Marjoram
Mint
Mustard
Poppy****
Rosemary
Rue
Saffron
Sea salt*
Sesame****
Silphium****
Thyme
Turmeric****



**These were listed on The Silk Road Gourmet article Some Mesopotamian Ingredients Revealed
**Mentioned in pork recipe on ancient Mesopotamian tablet
***Mentioned as Mesopotamian food in recipe for Wildfowl Pie
****Mentioned in History of Spices:  McCormic Spice Institute and Tasty Bite and Cameo  (it was also used as a dye...see Tasty Bite).   This post has more info on dyes in Mesopotamia.



OILS
Sesame Oil****
Possibly Other Vegetable Oils

****Mentioned in History of Spices:  McCormic Spice Institute



SWEETENERS

Honey


ALCOHOL
Barley Beer
Wine? (One source said grapes were rarely used)